The Development of Applied Linguistics from the 1950s to the Late 20th Century
The Development of Applied Linguistics from the 1950s to the Late 20th Century
Introduction
Applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the practical use of language knowledge to solve real-life problems involving language. Unlike theoretical linguistics, which focuses mainly on describing and explaining language structures, applied linguistics is interested in how language works in everyday contexts such as education, communication, policy, and society. (Lazaraton, 1989). The field developed rapidly in the second half of the twentieth century, especially from the 1950s onward, due to increasing global interaction and the growing need for effective language teaching and communication.
According to Hockett, (1958), the period from the 1950s to the late twentieth century represents a crucial stage in the history of applied linguistics. During this time, the field evolved from a narrow focus on language teaching into a broad, interdisciplinary area of study. It absorbed ideas from psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and later critical theory. This paper examines the major developments in applied linguistics from the 1950s to the end of the twentieth century, highlighting key theories, approaches, and shifts that shaped the field.
The Emergence of Applied Linguistics in the 1950s
Applied linguistics began to take shape in the 1950s, largely as a response to practical language problems that arose after the Second World War. The war created an urgent demand for foreign language learning, especially for military, diplomatic, and educational purposes. As a result, linguists were called upon to apply their knowledge of language structure to improve language teaching methods (Howatt, 1984).
At this time, structural linguistics dominated linguistic theory. Structural linguists viewed language as a system made up of smaller units such as sounds, words, and sentence patterns. This view strongly influenced early applied linguistics, particularly in the area of language teaching. Language learning was seen as the mastery of grammatical patterns and sound systems, and teaching focused on drills, repetition, and memorization. (Yule, 2005)
Behaviorist psychology also played a major role in shaping applied linguistics in the 1950s. According to behaviorist theories, learning occurred through habit formation, reinforcement, and imitation. This belief led to the development of the audiolingual method, which emphasized listening and speaking drills as the foundation of language learning (Lado, 1957). Applied linguistics during this period was therefore closely tied to language pedagogy and was largely considered an extension of linguistic theory.
The Development of Applied Linguistics from the 1950s to the Late 20th Century
Kebbe, (2010) opined that institutionally, the field began to gain recognition through the establishment of academic programs and research centers. One of the earliest and most influential institutions was the University of Edinburgh, where applied linguistics was formally recognized as an academic discipline. However, at this stage, applied linguistics was still viewed mainly as the application of linguistic knowledge rather than an independent field of inquiry.
Developments in the 1960s: Growth and Institutionalization
The 1960s marked a period of growth and consolidation for applied linguistics. During this decade, the field expanded in both scope and academic recognition. Language teaching remained central, but there was increasing interest in understanding how second languages are learned and how teaching methods could be improved through research. (Fasold, and Connor-Linton, 2006)
One of the most influential ideas of this period was the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This approach argued that the main difficulties learners face in learning a second language result from differences between their first language and the target language (Lado, 1957). By comparing the two languages, teachers could predict areas of difficulty and design teaching materials accordingly. Contrastive analysis was widely applied in syllabus design and error prevention.
Applied linguistics also became more organized as a discipline during the 1960s. Professional associations, journals, and conferences were established, providing platforms for research and scholarly discussion. Despite this growth, applied linguistics was still closely linked to theoretical linguistics, and many scholars believed that applied work should simply follow developments in linguistic theory.
However, the limitations of contrastive analysis soon became apparent. Many learner errors could not be explained solely by differences between languages. This realization led applied linguists to begin questioning earlier assumptions and to seek new approaches to understanding language learning.
The Development of Applied Linguistics from the 1950s to the Late 20th Century
The 1970s: Shift Toward Learner-Centered Approaches
The 1970s represented a major turning point in the development of applied linguistics. This period was characterized by theoretical shifts and growing interest in the learner as an active participant in the language learning process. One important influence was Noam Chomsky’s theory of generative grammar, which challenged behaviorist views of language learning.
Chomsky argued that language is not learned merely through habit formation but involves an innate cognitive capacity. This idea encouraged applied linguists to explore mental processes involved in language learning rather than focusing only on observable behavior. As a result, error analysis replaced contrastive analysis as a major research focus. Instead of predicting errors, researchers examined actual learner language to understand how learners construct meaning (Corder, 1967).
The concept of interlanguage, introduced by Selinker (1972), was another significant development. Interlanguage refers to the evolving linguistic system that learners develop as they move toward proficiency in a second language. This system is systematic and rule-governed, even though it differs from both the first language and the target language. This theory helped applied linguists view learner errors as a natural and necessary part of language development.
During this decade, applied linguistics also began to expand beyond language teaching. Issues such as language testing, bilingual education, and language planning started to receive attention. These developments contributed to the recognition of applied linguistics as a field concerned with real-world language problems more broadly.
The 1980s: Communicative Language Teaching and Interdisciplinary Expansion
The 1980s are often described as the era of communicative language teaching (CLT). This period saw a strong shift away from teaching methods that focused mainly on grammar and structure toward approaches that emphasized communication and meaning. Applied linguists argued that knowing a language involves more than knowing its rules; it also involves knowing how to use it appropriately in social contexts.
Dell Hymes’ concept of communicative competence was central to this shift. Hymes (1972) proposed that effective language use requires grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. This idea had a profound impact on language teaching, curriculum design, and assessment.
Applied linguistics during the 1980s became increasingly interdisciplinary. Researchers drew insights from sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and educational psychology. Language was studied in real-life settings such as classrooms, workplaces, and communities. This broadened perspective allowed applied linguistics to address issues such as classroom interaction, teacher talk, and learner identity.
This period also strengthened the theoretical independence of applied linguistics. Scholars began to argue that applied linguistics should not simply apply theories developed elsewhere but should develop its own frameworks based on real-world language problems (Widdowson, 1984).
The 1990s: Diversification and Critical Applied Linguistics
By the 1990s, applied linguistics had become a highly diverse and well-established field. In addition to language teaching and second language acquisition, the field now included areas such as translation studies, lexicography, forensic linguistics, language policy, and corpus linguistics.
One of the most important developments of this decade was the rise of critical applied linguistics. Scholars such as Pennycook (1994) argued that language issues cannot be separated from social, political, and cultural contexts. Critical applied linguistics examined how language relates to power, inequality, identity, and ideology, especially in postcolonial and multilingual societies.
Globalization also influenced applied linguistics during this period. Increased migration and international communication led to greater interest in multilingualism, World Englishes, and language rights. Applied linguists began to study how English functions as a global language and how it affects local languages and cultures.
Technological advances toward the end of the twentieth century further expanded the field. Computers were increasingly used in language teaching, research, and assessment, paving the way for computer-assisted language learning and corpus-based studies.
The Development of Applied Linguistics from the 1950s to the Late 20th Century
Applied Linguistics at the End of the 20th Century: An Evaluation
According to Brown (2000), by the end of the twentieth century, applied linguistics had evolved into a mature and multifaceted discipline. It had moved beyond its early focus on language teaching to address a wide range of language-related issues in society. The field’s strength lay in its flexibility and ability to draw from multiple disciplines to address complex language problems.
However, challenges remained. Some scholars expressed concern about the broad scope of applied linguistics and the difficulty of defining its boundaries. Others questioned whether the field could balance practical problem-solving with critical analysis. Despite these debates, applied linguistics had clearly established its relevance to education, policy, and social development.
Conclusion
The development of applied linguistics from the 1950s to the late twentieth century reflects a continuous process of growth, adaptation, and theoretical refinement. Beginning as a field focused mainly on language teaching and structural linguistics, applied linguistics gradually embraced learner-centered approaches, communicative perspectives, and critical inquiry. By the end of the twentieth century, it had become an interdisciplinary field concerned with language in real-world contexts. Understanding this historical development provides valuable insight into the role of applied linguistics in addressing contemporary language challenges.
References
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